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| Illustration by R.E. Slater & ChatGPT |
by R.E. Slater & ChapGPT
I have divided out this essay into several parts: References, Several of my poems, The World of Homer, and Historical Timelines, which include the partial histories of their eras as helps to understanding the historical background of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey and later, Virgil's Aeneid of the Roman period.
Calliope, Muse of Poetry, Song and Dance (Epic Greek Poetry)
Odysseus' Travels - Book 9 (The Odyssey)
- Greek Poet, Homer's Iliad - https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=the+iliad
- Greek Poet, Homer's Odyssey - https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=the+odyssey
- Roman Poet, Virgil's Aeneid - https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=the+aeneid
Introductory audiobook. At present there are 10 other linkedaudiobooks of 2 to 14 minute lengths connected one to the other.
Edith Hamilton's Pocket book of Mythology:
Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes
It is said that myth and history often grow together...
Before the ink of historians dried upon parchment,
before the chisels of scribes cut truth into clay,
there were singers beside the fire
speaking the names of heroes into the listening dark.
They told of Achilles, swift as the wind on bronze,
of Hector, whose courage stood like a wall before Troy,
of wandering Odysseus, patient among storms and strange islands.
Their words traveled farther than ships,
farther than armies,
farther even than time itself.
Yet beneath their music lay older echoes -
the memory of burning citadels,
the silence of emptied palaces,
the broken trade roads of worlds undone.
Cities fall quietly at first.
Granaries thin.
Messengers do not return.
The sea carries strangers to unfamiliar shores.
Then one day the gates become ash
and next, poets begin their work.
From the ruins of Troy the story continued westward,
carried by another voice across another age.
For Aeneas, son of a broken city,
lifted his father upon weary shoulders
to sail toward the dim horizon of a future unseen.
Where the Greeks were mourning a fallen world,
Rome was imagining a new beginning.
So their songs grew.
One people sang of war and glory,
another of wandering and homecoming,
and a third, of a destiny rising from the ashes.
Myth and history grew together like twining roots beneath the earth.
One remembers what happened.
The other remembers why it mattered.
And we who walk among their stories today
still listen for the truths between them -
not only in the ruins of stone cities
but in the ancient human hunger for meaning.
For the past does not live only in dates and chronicles.
It lives in the stories we tell
about who we were,
who we hoped to be,
and the winding roads which carried us here.
So sing again, O memory.
Sing of kings and wanderers,
of ships crossing the wine-dark seas,
of civilizations falling and rising like the heavy tides.
For myth and history grow together,
and in their intertwined branches
humanity re-discovers its name.
March 7, 2026
@copyright R.E. Slater Publications
all rights reserved
Sing, O Muse, of the long remembering of humankind,of cities that rose beside bright seas and vanished into silence,of kings whose names once thundered in bronze-clad hallsyet now return only in the breath of poetry.
Before historians measure the centuries,
before scholars arranges the fragments of time,
there is the poet-singer who gathers the scattered past
and binds it together with romantic, fearless story.
Tell us again of the ancient war beside the windy plains of Troy,
where spears flashed like lightning across the red dust of the earth,
where Achilles, fierce in glory,
and Hector, guardian of a fading city's glory,
met beneath the gaze of the immortal gods.
Tell also of wandering ancient seas and patient endurance,
of cunning Odysseus, master of storms and survival,
whose long road home wound through monsters and enchantments
until hearth-fire and memory became one again.
And after them, sing of the refugee from fallen walls -
of Aeneas, bearer of a future yet unknown -
who carried the burning embers of Troy across dark waters
until a distant land became the seed of Rome.
Thus the songs traveled farther than armies.
From the ruined palaces of the Bronze Age
to the marble forums of empire,
the poets carried forward what history alone could not hold.
For myth remembers the soul of an age
even when history forgets its name.
Where one records the rise and fall of kingdoms,
the other preserves the deeper question:
What does it mean to be humanin a world where every city is temporary?
So listen readers and travellers of the ages -
The stories of Homer and Virgilare not merely tales of ancient heroes.They are mirrors held up to every age,where memory and imagination weave togetherthe fragile thread of human meaning.
For myth and history grow together like the branches of a single tree -
their roots sunk deep in the past,
their leaves reaching toward the future.
And through their intertwining stories
humanity learns again what it has been,
what it may yet become,
and why the journey forever continues.
March 7, 2026
@copyright R.E. Slater Publications
all rights reserved
what civilization's forgot.
beneath the quiet dust of vanished roads,
echo the footsteps of ancient stories
marching across the beat of time.
Homer sang their legends beside the sea,
Virgil carried them westward to Rome's glory,
and we now, today, inherit their conquests
as fragments of unfinished song.
but cultural myth keeps the meaning going.
between memory and imagination -
why mythic journeys and imagination are worth telling.
March 7, 2026
@copyright R.E. Slater Publications
all rights reserved
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| Illustration by R.E. Slater & ChatGPT |
These traditions likely preserved cultural memories reaching back to the Late Bronze Age, when powerful palace civilizations dominated the eastern Mediterranean. Among these societies was Mycenaean civilization, a network of warrior kingdoms centered on fortified citadels such as Mycenae, Pylos, and Tiryns. These palace states flourished roughly between 1750 and 1050 BCE and maintained administrative systems recorded in the Linear B script, an early form of the Greek language. The Mycenaean world, however, collapsed around 1200 BCE during a broader upheaval that affected many civilizations across the Mediterranean, including the Hittite Empire and numerous cities along the Levantine coast.
The causes of this Bronze Age collapse remain debated but likely involved a combination of climatic stress, disruptions in long-distance trade, migrations or invasions - often associated with the so-called Sea Peoples - as well as internal instability and natural disasters.
*The Sea Peoples included well-attested groups such as the Lukka and Peleset, as well as others such as the Weshesh whose origins are unknown. Hypotheses regarding the origin of the various groups are the source of much speculation. Several of them appear to have been Aegean tribes, while others may have originated in Sicily, Sardinia, Crete, Southern Italy, Cyprus, and Western Anatolia. (Wikipedia).
As palace systems disintegrated, the bureaucratic writing systems used by Mycenaean administrators disappeared as well. Greece entered several centuries of cultural transformation known as the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1180–800 BCE), when settlements became smaller, populations declined, and written records vanished entirely.
Yet memory did not vanish. Instead, it survived through oral poetry. The heroic tales that eventually formed the Trojan War cycle likely originated as recollections - distorted, dramatized, and mythologized - of the final centuries of Mycenaean civilization. By the time Homeric poetry took shape, these stories had already been reshaped through centuries of retelling.
One of the most famous elements of this tradition is the story of the Trojan Horse, a stratagem by which the Greeks allegedly captured the city of Troy. The episode does not appear fully in Homer’s Iliad but was elaborated in later works such as Virgil’s Aeneid and other poems of the lost Trojan Epic Cycle. Historians generally regard the horse not as a literal event but as a symbolic narrative -perhaps reflecting siege tactics, deception in warfare, or the memory of a city destroyed from within.
Archaeology nevertheless confirms that Troy was a real place. Excavations beginning in the nineteenth century by Heinrich Schliemann uncovered multiple settlement layers at Hisarlik in modern Turkey near the Dardanelles. Among these layers are cities destroyed during the Late Bronze Age, particularly those known as Troy VI and Troy VIIa (c. 1700–1180 BCE). Although no single excavation proves the exact war described in myth, these archaeological remains demonstrate that a major city once stood at the crossroads of Aegean and Anatolian trade - precisely the sort of place where conflict might have occurred.
Thus the Trojan War tradition appears to represent a fusion of history and legend. The heroic age described by Homer likely preserves echoes of the Mycenaean past, filtered through centuries of oral storytelling before being written down in the early Greek alphabet during the Archaic period.
Between the Homeric age and the later cultural flowering of classical Athens stood another powerful force in Greek history: the rise of Sparta. From roughly the seventh to fifth centuries BCE, Sparta emerged as one of the dominant military powers in Greece, shaping the political landscape during the formative centuries when Greek city-states were consolidating their identities.
By the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, during the cultural ascendancy of Athens, the Homeric epics were widely written down, performed at civic festivals, and integrated into Greek education. What had once been fluid oral tradition became the foundation of Greek literary culture.
The pages that follow place these developments within a broader historical framework - from the Bronze Age world of the Mycenaeans to the Dark Age transformations, the rise of Archaic Greece, and the emergence of the classical Greek civilization that would shape Western intellectual history.
Although both poems revolve around the legendary Trojan War, they differ significantly in structure and theme.
The IliadThe Iliad focuses on a short episode during the final year of the war between the Greeks and the Trojans. Rather than recounting the entire conflict, the poem centers on the anger of the Greek hero Achilles, whose withdrawal from battle after a dispute with the Greek leader Agamemnon threatens the Greek army with disaster.
The poem explores themes of honor, glory, mortality, and the tragic cost of war. Although the conflict between Greeks and Trojans provides the dramatic setting, the deeper focus of the epic lies in the human consequences of pride, rage, and loss. The death of the Trojan prince Hector, one of the poem’s most poignant moments, reveals the shared humanity of enemies on both sides of the conflict.
In this way, The Iliad is not merely a war story. It is a profound meditation on heroism, fate, and the fragile dignity of human life.
The OdysseyWhere The Iliad explores the tragedy of war, The Odyssey tells the story of the long journey home. The poem follows the adventures of the Greek hero Odysseus as he struggles to return to his kingdom of Ithaca after the fall of Troy.
Odysseus encounters a series of strange and often dangerous challenges—monsters, enchantresses, divine interventions, and shipwrecks—that test both his courage and his intelligence. Unlike Achilles, whose greatness lies in battlefield glory, Odysseus embodies the virtues of cunning, endurance, and adaptability.
The poem also tells a parallel story at home, where Odysseus’s wife Penelope and son Telemachus struggle to preserve their household while waiting for his return.
At its heart, The Odyssey is a story about perseverance, identity, and the longing for home.
Cultural Importance
Together these epics became foundational texts of Greek culture. By the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, they were widely recited at public festivals and studied as part of Greek education. They shaped Greek ideas about heroism, morality, the gods, and the meaning of human life.
For later generations of Greeks—and for much of Western civilization—the Homeric poems served not only as literature but also as a shared cultural memory of a heroic past.
Comparison Table of the Homeric Epics
The Iliad
- A poem about war, glory, and mortality
- Focuses on the battlefield and heroic honor
- Tragic and solemn in tone
- A poem about journey, survival, and homecoming
- Focuses on wandering, identity, and family
- Adventurous and imaginative in tone
- The Iliad asks: What does it mean to die with honor?
- The Odyssey asks: What does it mean to live wisely and return home?
The stories told in The Iliad and The Odyssey form only part of a much larger body of myths known as the Trojan War Cycle. These narratives describe the origins of the war, the events of the conflict itself, and the fates of the heroes after the fall of Troy. Although many of the original poems in this cycle have been lost, their outlines survive through later summaries and references in ancient literature.
According to Greek tradition, the war began when the Trojan prince Paris carried away Helen, the wife of the Greek king Menelaus. In response, the Greek kingdoms formed a coalition of warriors led by Menelaus’s brother, Agamemnon, king of Mycenae. The Greek expedition crossed the Aegean Sea and laid siege to the powerful city of Troy, located near the strategic entrance to the Dardanelles.
The war, according to legend, lasted ten years and involved many of the greatest heroes of Greek mythology. Among them were Achilles, the greatest warrior of the Greek army, and Hector, the noble defender of Troy. The conflict also featured numerous interventions by the gods, who were believed to influence the fortunes of both sides.
The Iliad focuses on only a brief portion of this larger narrative, concentrating on the conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon and the tragic death of Hector. Other episodes of the wa - including the famous stratagem of the Trojan Horse - were described in later works and traditions.
Following the destruction of Troy, the surviving Greek heroes were said to have endured long and often disastrous journeys home. These stories formed the subject of several additional epics, most famously The Odyssey, which recounts the ten-year voyage of Odysseus as he struggles to return to his kingdom of Ithaca.
Although the Trojan War Cycle belongs primarily to the realm of mythology, it may preserve distant echoes of real conflicts that occurred during the final centuries of the Mycenaean Bronze Age. Archaeological discoveries at the site of ancient Troy suggest that a prosperous city once stood at this strategic location and suffered destruction during the period when such events are traditionally dated.
In this way, the Trojan War stories stand at the boundary between history, memory, and myth, preserving the heroic imagination of ancient Greece while reflecting the complex realities of the world from which these legends emerged.
The Aeneid functioned not only as a cultural legend celebrating Rome’s destiny and imperial greatness, but also as a literary affirmation of the political order established by Augustus. The emperor-formally titled Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus by royal decred - presented himself as the heir to Rome’s divine and heroic past. By birth he was Gaius Octavius, and after his adoption by his great uncle, Julius Caesar, he became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. Through Virgil’s epic, the Augustan regime could situate Rome’s imperial rise within a mythic genealogy that traced its origins back to the survivors of Troy.
The AENEID
Virgil’s epic begins after the fall of the city of Troy. One of the surviving Trojan heroes, Aeneas, escapes the destruction of the city carrying his aged father and leading a small band of refugees. According to Roman tradition, Aeneas was destined by the gods to travel westward across the Mediterranean and eventually found the lineage from which Rome itself would arise.
In its literary design, The Aeneid deliberately echoes the structure of the Homeric epics:
The first half of the poem resembles the wandering adventures of The Odyssey, recounting Aeneas’s long voyage through storms, divine interventions, and encounters with foreign lands.
The second half reflects the martial themes of The Iliad, describing the wars Aeneas must fight in Italy before his people can establish a permanent homeland.
Through this structure, Virgil effectively fused the two Homeric traditions - journey and war - into a single Roman narrative of destiny and foundation.
For the Romans, this story served an important cultural purpose. By claiming descent from the Trojan hero Aeneas, Rome could situate its origins within the heroic age celebrated in Greek mythology (a culture which had a large influence upon them). The fall of Troy therefore became not merely the end of one civilization but, in Roman imagination, the mythological beginning of another.
The poem also reflects the political ideals of Virgil’s own era. Written during the early Roman Empire, The Aeneid presents Aeneas as a model of duty, endurance, and devotion to divine purpose - qualities that Roman culture admired and that the Augustan regime sought to promote.
In this way Virgil transformed the ancient Greek stories of the Trojan War into a new narrative about Roman identity. The legendary destruction of Troy became the starting point of a long historical journey that would culminate in the rise of Rome as the dominant power of the Mediterranean world.
Thus the epic tradition that began with Homer’s songs of war and wandering continued to evolve across centuries and cultures. The heroic myths of ancient Greece were carried forward into Roman literature, where they were reshaped into a story of destiny, empire, and civilizational continuity.
This literary inheritance reminds us that myth and history often grow together. The stories preserved in epic poetry echo memories of earlier ages while also reflecting the aspirations of the societies that retold them. From the Bronze Age world remembered in Homer to the imperial ambitions celebrated by Virgil, the ancient Mediterranean preserved its past through narrative long before it preserved it through history.
Early Mycenaean period (c. 1750–1400 BC)
Middle Helladic III 1750/1720–1700/1675
Late Helladic I 1700/1675–1635/1600
Late Helladic IIA 1635/1600–1480/1470
Late Helladic IIB 1480/1470–1420/1410
Late Helladic IIIA1 1420/1410–1390/1370
Late Helladic IIIA2 1390/1370–1330/1315
Late Helladic IIIB 1330/1315–1210/1200
Postpalatial Bronze Age (c. 1200–1050 BC)
Late Helladic IIIC (Early) 1210/1200–1170/1160
Late Helladic IIIC (Middle) 1170/1160–1100
Late Helladic IIIC (Late) 1100–1070/1040
THE NEOLITHIC TIMELINE
Neolithic Greece 7000–3000 BCE
Early Bronze Age 3000–2000 BCE
Minoan Civilization 2600–1450 BCE
Mycenaean Greece 1750–1050 BCE
Trojan War tradition ~1250 BCE
Bronze Age Collapse ~1200 BCE
Greek Dark Ages 1180–800 BCE
Archaic Greece 800–480 BCE
Classical Greece 480–323 BCE
Hellenistic World 323–146 BCE
Background: Greece Before the Mycenaeans
Human settlement in the Greek world reaches back thousands of years before the Mycenaean period. By the Neolithic era (c. 7000–3000 BCE), agricultural villages had already formed across mainland Greece and the Aegean islands. Over time these early societies developed increasingly complex forms of trade, craft production, and social organization.
During the Early Bronze Age (c. 3000–2000 BCE), regional cultures emerged in mainland Greece, including the Korakou and Tiryns cultures. At the same time, across the Aegean Sea, the island of Crete witnessed the rise of the highly sophisticated Minoan civilization (c. 2600–1450 BCE). The Minoans developed large palace complexes such as Knossos, vibrant maritime trade networks, and a writing system known as Linear A. Their artistic styles, architecture, and commercial influence spread widely throughout the eastern Mediterranean.
Contact between mainland Greek populations and Minoan Crete likely stimulated the emergence of a new mainland culture that eventually became known as Mycenaean Greece.
Mycenaean Greece (c. 1750–1050 BCE)
Mycenaean Greece represents the final phase of the Greek Bronze Age and the first clearly identifiable Greek-speaking civilization on the mainland. It flourished roughly between 1750 and 1050 BCE.
The civilization takes its name from the fortified citadel of Mycenae in the northeastern Peloponnese, one of several powerful palace centers that dominated the political landscape of the time. Other major centers included Pylos, Tiryns, Midea, Orchomenos, Thebes, Athens, and Iolcos. Mycenaean settlements extended across mainland Greece, the Aegean islands, and parts of western Anatolia, and their cultural influence reached as far as Cyprus, the Levant, and even southern Italy.
Mycenaean society was organized around palace-centered states, each ruled by a king known as the wanax. These palatial centers functioned as hubs of administration, production, and redistribution. Bureaucrats recorded inventories, taxes, agricultural production, and trade goods using the Linear B script, a syllabic writing system that preserves the earliest known written form of the Greek language.
Several defining characteristics marked Mycenaean civilization:
- large fortified palace complexes
- massive Cyclopean stone walls
- an aristocratic warrior elite
- extensive trade across the Mediterranean
- sophisticated craft production and metallurgy
- bureaucratic record-keeping using Linear B tablets
Mycenaean religion included deities that would later appear in classical Greek mythology, suggesting continuity between Bronze Age belief systems and later Greek religion.
At its height between 1400 and 1200 BCE, Mycenaean Greece formed part of a vast network of interconnected Bronze Age powers across the eastern Mediterranean, including the Hittite Empire in Anatolia, the New Kingdom of Egypt, and trading states throughout the Levant.
Around 1200 BCE, many of these major civilizations experienced widespread destruction and decline in what historians call the Late Bronze Age collapse (Wikipedia).
Across the eastern Mediterranean:
- Mycenaean palace centers were burned or abandoned
- the Hittite Empire collapsed
- many cities from Anatolia (Turkey) to the Levant (Syria, Israel, etc) were destroyed
- Egypt entered a period of political fragmentation
Scholars debate the causes of this collapse, but several overlapping factors are commonly proposed:
- climate change and prolonged drought
- disruptions to long-distance trade networks
- migrations or invasions, sometimes associated with the Sea Peoples
- internal rebellion or social upheaval
- earthquakes and natural disasters
Whatever the precise causes, the result was the disintegration of the palace-centered political systems that had supported Mycenaean civilization.
The Greek Dark Ages (c. 1180–800 BCE)
Following the destruction of the Mycenaean palaces, Greece entered a long transitional period often called the Greek Dark Ages.
This era was characterized by:
- the abandonment or destruction of many major settlements
- population decline and ruralization
- loss of complex administrative systems
- disappearance of writing
The Linear B script, once used by Mycenaean bureaucrats, ceased to be used entirely. For several centuries Greece had no written records, which is one reason the period is described as “dark.”
Archaeological evidence shows that settlements became smaller and more isolated, suggesting famine, migration, and significant demographic decline. At the same time, other major Bronze Age civilizations across the region also collapsed or fragmented.
Yet the period was not simply one of stagnation. Important cultural changes were occurring:
- iron replaced bronze as the primary metal for tools and weapons
- local communities reorganized into smaller social units
- oral traditions preserved stories of the heroic past
These oral traditions eventually formed the basis of the great epic poems later attributed to Homer: the Iliad and the Odyssey, which describe a legendary heroic age remembered from the distant Mycenaean past.
The Trojan War tradition likely reflects memories of the late Mycenaean world (~1200 BCE), but the epics attributed to Homer were composed and written down about 400–500 years later. During the intervening centuries, Greece passed through the Greek Dark Ages, when writing disappeared and history was preserved only through oral storytelling.
What This Gap Means1. Memory became myth
Stories about the Mycenaean warrior age survived through centuries of oral poetry, where they gradually blended history with legend.
2. Homer describes an earlier world
The society portrayed in the epics contains a mixture of different periods:
- Mycenaean elements (bronze armor, heroic kings)
- Dark Age practices (smaller political structures)
- Early Archaic Greek culture
This mixture reflects centuries of storytelling before the poems were written down.
3. Archaeology confirms part of the tradition
Excavations at Hisarlik in modern Turkey - identified with ancient Troy - revealed a real Bronze Age city destroyed around the time the Trojan War is traditionally dated.
Why the Homeric Gap MattersThe gap explains why the Homeric epics are best understood as cultural memory rather than literal history. They preserve echoes of the Mycenaean past, but filtered through centuries of oral tradition before being written down in the early Greek alphabet during the Archaic period.
The Transition Toward Archaic Greece (c. 800 BCE)
By around 800 BCE, Greek society began to recover and transform.
Several major developments marked the end of the Dark Ages:
- population growth resumed
- trade networks expanded again
- new city-states (poleis) began forming
- the Greek alphabet was adopted, derived from the Phoenician writing system
The introduction of alphabetic writing allowed Greek literature to be recorded for the first time. It was during this period that the epic traditions of the Trojan War were written down, preserving cultural memories that likely originated in the Mycenaean age.
This cultural revival marked the beginning of Archaic Greece, which would eventually lead to the flourishing of classical Greek civilization.
TIMELINE OF EARLY GREEK
CIVILIZATION
1. Neolithic Greece
c. 7000–3000 BCE
-
First farming communities in mainland Greece and the Aegean
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Village-based societies develop pottery, agriculture, and early trade networks
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Foundations of later Aegean cultures emerge
2. Early Bronze Age Greece
c. 3000–2000 BCE
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Regional mainland cultures form (Korakou, Tiryns, and others)
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Development of metallurgy and expanding maritime trade
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Increasing contact with the emerging civilization on Crete
3. Minoan Civilization (Crete)
c. 2600–1450 BCE
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First great Aegean civilization centered on Crete
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Palace complexes such as Knossos and Phaistos
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Maritime trade network across the eastern Mediterranean
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Writing system: Linear A (still undeciphered)
This civilization strongly influenced the mainland Greeks.
4. Mycenaean Greece (c. 1750–1050 BCE)
Late Bronze Age Greek civilization.
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c. 1750–1600 BCE – Early Mycenaean rise on mainland Greece
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c. 1600–1400 BCE – Expansion of Mycenaean palace culture
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c. 1400–1200 BCE – Peak Mycenaean civilization
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Palaces at Mycenae, Pylos, Tiryns, and Thebes
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Use of Linear B writing
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c. 1250–1100 BCE – Destruction of palaces and Bronze Age collapse
5. Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200–800 BCE)
Period of population decline and cultural transition.
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1180–1050 BCE – Sub-Mycenaean transition period
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1100–900 BCE – Early Dark Age
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Loss of writing
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Smaller settlements
-
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900–800 BCE – Late Dark Age / Geometric period
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Population recovery
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Greek alphabet introduced
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Oral traditions of the Homeric epics take shape
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6. Archaic Greece (c. 800–480 BCE)
Era of cultural revival and formation of city-states.
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Development of the polis (city-state) system
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Expansion of Greek colonies across the Mediterranean
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Composition of the Homeric epics (Iliad and Odyssey)
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Early Greek philosophy and poetry
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Rise of Sparta and Athens as major powers
Key events
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776 BCE – Traditional first Olympic Games
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c. 650–500 BCE – Greek colonization and trade expansion
7. Classical Greece (480–323 BCE)
Golden age of Greek culture and political development.
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480–479 BCE – Greek victory in the Persian Wars
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5th century BCE – Cultural flowering in Athens
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Drama, philosophy, history, architecture
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431–404 BCE – Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta
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4th century BCE – Rise of Macedon under Philip II
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323 BCE – Death of Alexander the Great
8. Hellenistic Period (323–146 BCE)
Spread of Greek culture across the eastern Mediterranean.
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Greek kingdoms formed from Alexander’s empire
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Cultural centers such as Alexandria flourish
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Greek language becomes a common Mediterranean lingua franca
9. Roman Expansion and Rule (509 BCE – 476 CE)
Roman Republic (509–27 BCE)
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Expansion throughout Italy and the Mediterranean
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146 BCE – Rome conquers Greece
Roman Empire (27 BCE – 476 CE in the West)
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Beginning with Augustus
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Greek culture continues strongly within the empire
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Division between Western and Eastern Roman worlds
